Masculinity is a set of qualities, characteristics or roles generally
considered typical of, or appropriate to, a man. It can have degrees of
comparison: "more masculine", "most masculine'". The opposite can be
expressed by terms such as "unmanly'" or epicene. A near-synonym of
masculinity is virility (from Latin vir, man). Constructs of masculinity
vary across historical and cultural contexts. The dandy, for instance,
was regarded as an ideal of masculinity in the 19th century, but is
considered effeminate by modern standards.[2]
Academic study of
masculinity underwent a massive expansion of interest in the late 1980s
and early 1990s, with courses in the United States dealing with
masculinity rising from 30 to over 300.[3] This has led to the
investigation of the intersection of masculinity with other axes of
social discrimination and also to the use of concepts from other fields
-- such as feminism's model of the social construct of gender.
According
to a paper submitted by Tracy Tylka to the American Psychological
Association (APA), in contemporary America: "Instead of seeing a
decrease in objectification of women in society, there has just been an
increase in the objectification of both sexes. And you can see that in
the media today." Men and women restrict their food intake in an effort
to achieve what they consider an attractively thin body, in extreme
cases leading to eating disorders.[29]
Thomas Holbrook, also a
psychiatrist, cites a recent Canadian study indicating as many as one in
six of those with eating disorders were men.[30]
"Younger men and
women who read fitness and fashion magazines could be psychologically
harmed by the images of perfect female and male physiques," according to
recent research in the United Kingdom. Some young women and men
exercise excessively in an effort to achieve what they consider an
attractively fit and muscular body, which in extreme cases can lead to
body dysmorphic disorder or muscle dysmorphia.
Although the actual
stereotypes may have remained relatively constant, the value attached to
masculine stereotypes have changed over the past few decades and it has
been argued that masculinity is an unstable phenomenon and never
ultimately achieved.
The driver crash rate per vehicle miles
driven is higher for women than for men; although, men are much more
likely to cause deaths in the accidents they are involved in.[34] Men
drive significantly more miles than women, so, on average, they are more
likely to be involved in motor vehicle accidents. Even in the narrow
category of young (16--20) driver fatalities with a high blood alcohol
content (BAC), a male's risk of dying is higher than a female's risk at
the Same BAC level.[35] That is, young women drivers need to be more
drunk to have the same risk of dying in a fatal accident as young men
drivers.
A growing body of evidence is pointing toward the
deleterious impact of masculinity (and hegemonic masculinity in
particular) on men's health help-seeking behaviour.[36] American men
make 134.5 million fewer physician visits than American women each year.
In fact, men make only 40.8% of all physician visits, that is, if
women's visits for pregnancy are included, childbirth and associated
obstetrical and gynecological visits. A quarter of the men who are 45 to
60 do not have a personal physician. Many men should go to annual heart
checkups with physicians but do not, increasing their risk of death
from heart disease. Men between the ages of 25 and 65 are four times
more likely to die from cardiovascular disease than women. Men are more
likely to be diagnosed in a later stage of a terminal illness because of
their reluctance to go to the doctor.
Reasons men give for not
having annual physicals and not visiting their physician include fear,
denial, embarrassment, a dislike of situations out of their control, or
not worth the time or cost.
Arran Stibbe (2004) analysed issues
of a prominent men's health magazine in the year 2000, and claimed that
while ostensibly being focused on health, the magazine also promoted
hegemonic (traditional) masculinity. These potentially damaging male
behaviors included the excessive consumption of convenience foods and
meats, drinking of alcohol, and unsafe sex.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masculinity
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